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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE :- We call ourselves Homo sapiens—man the wise—because our intelligence is so important to us. For thousands of years, we have tried to understand how we think; that is, how a mere handful of matter can perceive, understand, predict, and manipulate a world far larger and more complicated than itself. The field of artificial intelligence , or AI, goes further still: it attempts not just to understand but also to build intelligent entities. AI is one of the newest fields in science and engineering. Work started in earnest soon after World War II, and the name itself was coined in 1956. Along with molecular biology, AI is regularly cited as the “field I would most like to be in” by scientists in other disciplines. A student in physics might reasonably feel that all the good ideas have already been taken by Galileo, Newton, Einstein, and the rest. AI, on the other hand, still has openings for several full-time Einsteins and Edisons . AI currently encompasses a

ARP is a protocol used by the Internet Protocol (IP) to map IP network address (IPv4 address) into link layer address. The protocol operates at the network layer as a part of the interface between the OSI network and OSI link layer. Reverse ARP is also available and is represented as RARP, is used to discover its IP address by a host. In this case, the host broadcasts its physical address and an RARP server replies with the host's IP address. ARP is one which lies between layer 2 and 3 of the OSI model, though it is not included in this model. (i) Mechanism If a packet is intended for a host machine on a specific LAN reaches a gateway. The ARP program finds a physical host or MAC address that matches the IP address as per the gateway request and looks forward to ARP cache. If it finds the address, the packet is converted to the right packet length and format, then sent to the machine. If an entry is not found for the IP address, ARP extends a request packet to all the mach

OSPF (open shortest path first ) Protocol: Routers connect networks using the Internet Protocol (IP), and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a  router   protocol  used to find the best path for packets as they pass through a set of connected networks. OSPF is designated by the Internet Engineering Task Force ( IETF ) as one of several Interior Gateway Protocols ( IGP s) -- that is, protocols aimed at traffic moving around within a larger  autonomous system  network like a single enterprise's network, which may in turn be made up of many separate local area networks linked through routers. The OSPF routing protocol has largely replaced the older Routing Information Protocol (RIP) in corporate networks. Using OSPF, a router that learns of a change to a routing table (when it is reconfigured by network staff, for example) or detects a change in the network immediately multi-casts the information to all other OSPF hosts in the network so they will all have the same routing table i

We have to identify the confidential information that needs to be protected on the network. The necessary security policies and guidelines should be defined for the organization. There should be at least one outcomes and accomplishments for each security objectives in order to ensure we have to set the proper security policies within the organization.  The required Security technologies need to be defined in protecting the critical infrastructure of the network. Critical infrastructure refers to critical resources like data, servers, hosts, clients that need to be protected on the network There are various security risks and challenges that needs to be addressed on the network  There are always consequences that organization have to face of not implementing proper security infrastructure.  Companies have to support the development of various innovative solutions for securing future data on the network. Companies have to build some solution in order to avoid various risks and

Network Intrusion Detection A network-based Intrusion Detection (ID) manages the traffic on its network area as a source of data. It is generally achieved by placing the network interface card in the promiscuous mode in order to conquer all the network traffic, which crosses its network area. Both network-based and host-based ID sensors have the relevant pros and cons in the network. Network based ID sensors involves tracking packets on the networks for any vulnerabilities in the network. The network IDs can only track the packets that happen to travel within the defined network segment. Host based ID sensors tracks for any vulnerable packets flowing through various hosts in the network. It not only tracks vulnerability within hosts, but also keeps track of vulnerabilities of hosts connected to various networks. There are various detection techniques for detecting different intrusions on the network. The two most frequently used approaches of intrusion detection are: 1.Signa

Virtual Private Network (VPN) Data privacy is considered to be one of the most crucial aspects of securing the data over the network. Data privacy, is also known as Information Privacy. It is a part or subsidiary of information technology, which deals with the abilities of organisation or individual to determine the type of data to be shared on a computer system with the third parties. Virtual Private Network (VPN) is one more important feature of data privacy. VPN plays a major role in protecting the privacy of data and communication channel on the network. Data privacy describes VPN techniques to keep the data safe on the network. Internet Protocol Security VPN (IPsec VPN): IP Sec defines a private communication channel in order to support secured business operations on the network. IP Sec fulfils the dream of sending information through the secured channel to remote servers anytime/anywhere to any recipient across the work. • Dynamic Multipoint VPN:  Dynamic Multi

network security feature: confidentiality: The process of maintaining the privacy of transactions from sources to destinations is called “Confidentiality.” Confidentiality talks about protecting the disclosing of information to unauthorized parties on the network. The information transferred from source to destination has some secret message which cannot be shared with unauthorized users. The most common technique adopted to keep the information confidential is the process of encryption. Encryption ensures that the message is secured with a private key and the original message will be in an unreadable format. So, everyone wishes to keep the information secret from diverse malicious activities on the network. Confidentiality is considered to be one of the primary factors of secured transactions between sources to the destination. The confidential information can contain any bank details, personal details, hospital details, government details, which needs to be protected from v

introduction to networking cables : Cabling :- transmission media make use of wires or cable in which signal are imprisoned to a specified path . there are different type of guided media, such as : Twisted pair cable this is most commonly used cable and is cheaper when compare to other cable . they are easy  to install ,lightweight and support several network  types. twisted pair cable are used to to transfer both analog and digital signals. it is mostly used in telephone network as well as within a building . these cable are less expensive when compared with other midia. twisted pair cable are further classified in two types , unshileded twisted pair cable and shielded twisted pair cable . unshielded twisted pair cable consist of two conductors. these conducter are made from copper and are conveted  with a palstic insulater to differentiet them from several other cable . shielded twisted pair cable consist of a metal foil used to cover the insulated conductors . the  m

Secure Shell (SSH):- SSH, also known as Secure Socket Shell, is a network protocol that provides administrators with a secure way to access a remote computer. SSH also refers to the suite of utilities that implement the protocol. Secure Shell provides strong  authentication and secure  encrypted  data communications between two computers connecting over an insecure network such as the Internet. SSH is widely used by network administrators for managing systems and applications remotely, allowing them to log in to another computer over a network, execute commands and move files from one computer to another SSH can refer both to the cryptography network protocol and to the suite of utilities that implement that protocol. SSH uses the client-server model, connecting a secure shell client application, the end at which the session is displayed, with an SSH server, the end at which the session runs. Apart from Microsoft Windows, SSH software is included by default on most operating

MD5:- The MD5  hashing   algorithm  is a one-way cryptography  function  that accepts a message of any length as input and returns as output a fixed-length   digest  value to be used for  authenticating  the original message. The MD5 hash function was originally designed for use as a secure  cryptography  hash algorithm for authenticating  digital signatures . MD5 has been deprecated for uses other than as a non-cryptographic  checksum  to verify data integrity and detect  unintentional l  data corruption . Although originally designed as a  cryptography   message authentication code  algorithm for use on the internet, MD5 hashing is no longer considered reliable for use as a cryptographic checksum  because researchers have demonstrated techniques capable of easily generating MD5  collisions  on commercial off-the-shelf computers. Ronald  Rivets , founder of RSA Data Security and institute professor at MIT, designed MD5 as an improvement to a prior message digest

connection-oriented:- connection-oriented  describes a means of transmitting data in which the devices at the end points use a preliminary  protocol  to establish an end-to-end connection before any data is sent. Connection-oriented protocol service is sometimes called a "reliable" network service, because it guarantees that data will arrive in the proper sequence. Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP ) is a connection-oriented protocol. For connection-oriented communications, each end point must be able to transmit so that it can communicate. The alternative to connection-oriented transmission is the  connection-less  approach, in which data is sent from one end point to another without prior arrangement. Connection-less protocols are usually described as  stateless  because the end points have no protocol-defined way to remember where they are in a "conversation" of message exchanges. Because they can keep track of a conversation, connection-oriented protoco

Check-sum Definition: A checksum is a count of the number of bits in a transmission unit that is included with the unit so that the receiver can check to see whether the same number of bits arrived. If the counts match, it's assumed that the complete transmission was received. Both  TCP  and  UDP  communication layers provide a checksum count and verification as one of their services. It is provide some key that is include with data bits,and when the receiver will receive the massage then the check the massage and checksum bit ,if it not modify then data will be safe. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):- UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an alternative communications protocol to Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP ) used primarily for establishing low-latency and loss tolerating connections between applications on the Internet. Both UDP and TCP run on top of the Internet Protocol (IP) and are sometimes referred to as UDP/IP or TCP/IP. Both protocols send short packets of data,

http:- HTTP stands for  Hypertext Transfer Protocol . When you enter  HTTP://  in your address bar in front of the domain, it tells the browser to connect over HTTP. HTTP uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), generally over port 80, to send and receive data packets over the web. To put it simply it is a protocol that’s used by a client and server which allows you to communicate with other websites. The client sends a request message to a HTTP server (after the TCP handshake) which hosts a website, the server then replies with the response message. The response message contains completion status information, such as “HTTP/1.1 200 OK”. https:- HTTPS stands for  Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure  (also referred to as HTTP over TLS or HTTP over SSL). When you enter  HTTPS://  in your address bar in front of the domain, it tells the browser to connect over HTTPS. Generally sites running over HTTPS will have a redirect in place so even if you type in  HTTP://  it will redirect t

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):- TCP (Transmission Control  Protocol ) is a standard that defines how to establish and maintain a network conversation via which  application programs  can exchange data. TCP works with the Internet Protocol ( IP ), which defines how computers send  packet s of  data  to each other. Together, TCP and IP are the basic rules defining the Internet. TCP is defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force ( IETF ) in the Request for Comment ( RFC ) standards document number 793. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established and maintained until the application programs at each end have finished exchanging messages. It determines how to break application data into packets that  networks  can deliver, sends packets to and accepts packets from the network layer, manages  flow contro l ,  and—because it is meant to provide error-free data transmission—handles re-transmission of dropped or garbled packets as well as ack

internet protocol is layer 3 protocol which act as glue to hold the whole internet together. ti is used to across the internet home network and business network. it provide data-gram or connection-less  services between the end services.internet protocol is frenetically use together transmission control protocol and allow to both conversely  tcp/ip . connection less feature is made extremely good for packet deliver (not guaranteed ). An IP address (short for Internet Protocol address) is used to identify computers on the Internet. It works like a return address would on a piece of mail. How IP addresses work:- When your computer or device sends a request, like a search on Google, it tags the request with your IP address. That way Google knows where to send the response

Transport layer deal with the flow control of data and this is performed end to end rather than across a single network .Flow control is the management of data flow between computers or devices or between nodes in a network so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace. Too much data arriving before a device can handle it causes data overflow, meaning the data is either lost or must be re-transmitted. For serial data transmission locally or in a network, the Xon/Xoff protocol can be used. For modem connections, either Xon/Xoff or CTS/RTS (Clear to Send/Ready to Send) commands can be used to control data flow. In a network, flow control can also be applied by refusing additional device connections until the flow of traffic has subsided.it  is solve this problem than it's use concept of buffer. application program:- An application program  is any  program  designed to perform a specific function directly for the user or, in some cases, for another application prog

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. An operating system performs these services for applications: In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn. It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications. It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports. It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred. It can offload the management of what are called  batch  jobs (for example, printing) so that the initiating application is freed from this work. On computers that

Wireless Technology:-- we all are familiar with the terms WIFI ,BLUTOOTH ,ZIGBEE ,3G/4G ,Satellite services. whether is on account of you having made a call utilizing a cell phone ,got a massage on your pager, checked your email from a PDA or even just seen an advert identified with it. Wireless technology allows transmission of information over a distance without using cable ,wire or other forms of electrical conductors, i.e.,if a user ,application or company wishes to make data portable ,mobile and accessible then wireless networking is the answer. Wireless access to the network become more popular in public place like library,hotel ,cafeteria guesthouse and school and collage. It is three type :- Short-range wireless communication medium range wireless communication  Wide range wireless communication 

Network:- network is a group of people who exchange the information contact and experience for professional and social purpose ,therefore networking is define as one's effort and create this group.  Types Of Network: computer network are classifieds into different type depending on their size and  usage. network size is determine by the   number of computer that it holds and by the area that is the geographic area that it occupied. network can include any number of device from those within room to those which are distributed across the world .the following are the types of network: LOCAL AREA NETWORK(LAN) WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK(MAN) PERSONAL AREA NETWORK(PAN) PAN:- A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth e

cryptography Cryptography is an art of converting the original text in an unknown format in such a way that the message sent from source to destination is secured. The process of cryptology involves converting an actual message into an encrypted format using a secret key, which is shared between the source and destination. Strong cryptography is secreted and encrypted communication that is well-protected against cryptographic analysis and decryption to ensure it is readable only to intended parties. Depending on the algorithms, protocols and implementation, a cryptographic system may be vulnerable to analysis, leading to possible cracking of the system. The ideal is an unbreakable system of which there is just one well known example: the one-time pad. The one-time pad is a system in which a randomly generated single-use private key is used to encrypt a message. The message is then decrypted by the receiver using a matching one-time pad and key. The challenge in this s

What is firewall ? Firewall is a software and hardware ,it is protect our system to the malware,virus, and malicious software ,which is come in to the system with the help of pen-drive or downloaded file . A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined set of security rules. The rule is two type outbound and inbound .It's defined by the user.firewall only protect to incoming services .  A firewall controls access to the resources of a network through a positive control model. This means that the only traffic allowed onto the network is defined in the firewall policy; all other traffic is denied. Firewalls have been a first line of defense in network security for over 25 years. They establish a barrier between secured and controlled internal networks that can be trusted and untrusted outside networks, such as the Internet.  Types of Firewall: