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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE :- We call ourselves Homo sapiens—man the wise—because our intelligence is so important to us. For thousands of years, we have tried to understand how we think; that is, how a mere handful of matter can perceive, understand, predict, and manipulate a world far larger and more complicated than itself. The field of artificial intelligence , or AI, goes further still: it attempts not just to understand but also to build intelligent entities. AI is one of the newest fields in science and engineering. Work started in earnest soon after World War II, and the name itself was coined in 1956. Along with molecular biology, AI is regularly cited as the “field I would most like to be in” by scientists in other disciplines. A student in physics might reasonably feel that all the good ideas have already been taken by Galileo, Newton, Einstein, and the rest. AI, on the other hand, still has openings for several full-time Einsteins and Edisons . AI currently encompasses a

ARP is a protocol used by the Internet Protocol (IP) to map IP network address (IPv4 address) into link layer address. The protocol operates at the network layer as a part of the interface between the OSI network and OSI link layer. Reverse ARP is also available and is represented as RARP, is used to discover its IP address by a host. In this case, the host broadcasts its physical address and an RARP server replies with the host's IP address. ARP is one which lies between layer 2 and 3 of the OSI model, though it is not included in this model. (i) Mechanism If a packet is intended for a host machine on a specific LAN reaches a gateway. The ARP program finds a physical host or MAC address that matches the IP address as per the gateway request and looks forward to ARP cache. If it finds the address, the packet is converted to the right packet length and format, then sent to the machine. If an entry is not found for the IP address, ARP extends a request packet to all the mach

OSPF (open shortest path first ) Protocol: Routers connect networks using the Internet Protocol (IP), and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a  router   protocol  used to find the best path for packets as they pass through a set of connected networks. OSPF is designated by the Internet Engineering Task Force ( IETF ) as one of several Interior Gateway Protocols ( IGP s) -- that is, protocols aimed at traffic moving around within a larger  autonomous system  network like a single enterprise's network, which may in turn be made up of many separate local area networks linked through routers. The OSPF routing protocol has largely replaced the older Routing Information Protocol (RIP) in corporate networks. Using OSPF, a router that learns of a change to a routing table (when it is reconfigured by network staff, for example) or detects a change in the network immediately multi-casts the information to all other OSPF hosts in the network so they will all have the same routing table i